曾經有學生問我一條很好的問題，在此同大家分享：

到底說 no student 還是 no students 才是正確？

其實，兩者都正確，但傾向說成複數形式。

眾所周知，英語名詞有分可數不可數，不可數名詞 (uncountable noun) 沒有複數可言，所以沒有「限定詞 (determiner) "no" 後跟單數還是複數名詞？」這個問題：

I have no time to spare.

No water was wasted in this activity.

但是，可數名詞 (countable noun) 一般來說則會用複數形式，以表達一種 "普遍" (general) 或 "不特定" (non-specific) 的意思。

I can see no dictionaries.
我看不到 "字典" 這東西。

There are no apples on the table.
枱上沒有 "蘋果" 這種生果。

相反，當我們想消除這種 "普遍性"，就要用單數形式。看看以下對話：

A: Where is the dictionary?

B: It's on the table.

A: But I can see no dictionary.

假設枱上向來只有一本字典，那就不能說 "no dictionaries"，否則別人會以為枱上原來有超過一本字典呢。

有些情況基乎是不用複數的，因為不合邏輯。這時候一概用單數形式：

She has no husband. [筆者按：丈夫應該只有一個吧！]

This creature has no head.

You really have no heart!

但假如是 "她沒有小孩" 的話，就要視乎你是否特定地說 "某一位小孩"：

A: Mary didn't bring her child here today.

B: Mary's child? She has no child. That was her nephew.

A: But isn't she married?

B: Yes, she's just married but she has no children so far.

回顧問題，假如你進入一間從未進入過的課室，發覺空無一人，你可以說：

There are no students.

但如果你一向都認為課室內有一個學生，進去才驚覺學生不見了，你就可以說：

How come there is no student here?

最近忙於改學生考試卷，以至遲遲未能寫新文章，還請見諒。今日想跟大家談談 stake 這個詞語的隱喻意義 (metaphorical meaning) 和用法。

當某人就一場賽馬、一項競爭或一個撲克遊戲進行賭博時，他的 stake 是他進行賭博的賭注，如果他所下注的馬、人或團隊不能取勝，他就會輸錢。stake 及其複數形式 stakes 用作隱喻，談論事物處於危險境地的情況。

說 something is at stake 指某事物在某個情況中冒著風險，如果有關的人不能取得成功，該事物就可能遭損失或破壞。

At stake is the loss or failure of the world trade talks.
無法預料的是世貿談判的失敗。

At stake are more than 20,000 jobs in Britain's aerospace industry.
吉凶難卜的是英國航天工業的二萬多個職位。

與一個危險境況有關的 stakes 是有可能失去或獲取的事物。說 the stakes are high 指有關的人有可能失去或贏得許多，這取決於他們是否成功。

By arresting the organization's two top leaders the government and the army have now raised the stakes.
逮捕了該組織的兩名最高領導人後，政府和軍方的風險就更大了。

When science deals with the lives of patients, the stakes are high.
當科學用於解救病人生命的時候，其成功與否的風險很大。

Magazine publishing is a high-stakes game.
發行雜誌是一種高風險的賭博。

stake 也用作動詞談論對某事物的風險。to stake something (such as a large amount of money or one's reputation) on the success of something else 指將大筆金錢或自己的聲譽等押在某事物的成功上，如果那事物不成功，錢就會損失，名譽則會受損。

He has staked his political future on the election's victory.
他已經將他的政治前途押在這次選舉的勝利上。

He has staked his reputation on the outcome.
他已把自己的名譽押在這次結果上。

賽馬有時被叫做 stakes 。雖然這是舊式用法，但它仍然出現在一些比賽的名稱裏。 stakes 用作隱喻，指一種像競爭或比賽的情況。

the ___ stakes 可用來指人認為是競爭或比賽的一種境況，在這種境況中，任何一方都有輸贏的可能。

The prime minister is not very high in the popularity stakes at the moment.
首相現在的受歡迎程度不是很高。

The celebrated Armstel Hotel, in Amsterdam, now has a rival in the luxury hotel stakes.
阿姆斯特丹著名的阿姆斯特爾旅店在豪華旅店生意競爭中現在有了一個對手。

I didn't do so badly in the marriage stakes.
在婚姻方面我的運氣並不那麼糟。

最後，希望讀者們都學懂 stake(s) 的意思和用法，並在你們的作文裏加以運用！

今日再同大家看一個長句，它同樣出自 UE 1997 Section C 的閱讀理解。句子是這樣寫的 (lines 46-52) ：

It [The West's failure] extends not just to the environment and physical infrastructure of modern Asian societies, which people are amazed to find leave British and many other European cities looking run down and dilapidated, but to the moral and social order they stand.

句子既用上 not just… but… 這個平行結構 (parallel structure) ，也用上兩個關係子句 (relative clause) 。而最令學生費解的，莫過於兩個動詞 find 和 leave 在 people are amazed to 之後連在一起。以下時間，我會替讀者拆解以上長句，並且講解動詞 find 和 leave 的一些特殊用法；與此同時，讀者可以順便複習一下關係子句這個語法問題。

首先，我們複習一下關係子句的用法。關係子句有兩種：限制性 (restrictive) 關係子句和非限制性 (non-restrictive) 關係子句。限制性關係子句具約束性，旨在給它跟隨的名詞下定義；剔走它，句子意思會變得不完整。非限制性關係子句則不具約束性，目的是給它跟隨的名詞提供附加資料；子句用兩個逗號 (comma) 分隔，屬選擇性質。下面是兩個例子：

1. My friends who live in London have just graduated from university.
2. My parents, who live in London, are both engineers.

例句 1. 中的關係子句是限制性的，它收窄名詞 friends 涉及的範圍，指明是於倫敦居住的朋友。若果剔走那關係子句，句子意思會變成「我的朋友剛大學畢業」，而非原來的意思「我於倫敦居住的朋友剛大學畢業」。例句 2. 中的關係子句是非限制性的，用兩個逗號分隔，它只不過給名詞 parents 額外提供住處資料，剔走它後句子意思仍舊完整，都是說「我的父母都是工程師」。

長句中 which people are amazed to find leave British and many other European cities looking run down and dilapidated 是非限制性關係子句，所以用兩個逗號分開，剔走它後句子仍舊完整。

換言之，上述長句是由兩個意思 (ideas) ，透過 which 這個關係代詞 (relative pronoun) ，連接而成。這兩個意思，一主一次，分別是：

It [The West's failure] extends not just to the environment and physical infrastructure of modern Asian societies, but to the moral and social order they [= British and many other European cities] stand.
西方國家之失敗，不僅在環境和基礎建設方面，更伸延至她們的道德和社會秩序。

People are amazed to find (that) the environment and physical infrastructure of modern Asian societies leave British and many other European cities looking run down and dilapidated.
人們驚訝的是，亞洲先進國家的環境和基礎建設使英國和很多歐洲其他城市顯得破舊失修。

上面兩個句子中，加底線部分為兩句共通之名詞詞組。我們可以把在次要意思那句中出現的那個名詞詞組 the environment and physical infrastructure of modern Asian societies 省略掉，用關係代詞 which 替代，再把關係代詞移到兩句之間，將它們連接起來。就是這樣，代表次要意思的那句變成了一個以關係代詞 which 為首的關係子句，在長句中間出現。把上述過程形式化，我們得出以下表述：

It extends not just to the environment and physical infrastructure of modern Asian societies_i, which_i people are amazed to find t_i leave British and many other European cities looking run down and dilapidated, but to the moral and social order they stand.

在上面形式化表述中，符號 t 代表關係代詞 which 移走後留下的痕跡 (trace) ；符號 i 邏輯上是一個變量 (variable) ，而擁有相同變量符號之句子成分代表擁有相同之指示對象 (referent) 。

接著，我們探討一下動詞 find 和 leave 的一些特殊用法，從而解釋為何兩個動詞看似連在一起。

動詞 find 其中一個意思，指覺得、瞭解到或（憑經驗）發現某事物或某人為某事物或做某事物。這個意思可以用以下幾個不同之結構方式來表達：

1. [V (that)]  I find (that) honesty is important. // The report found that 70% of the firms planned to hire more staff this year.
2. [V n adj]  We found the new bed very comfortable.
3. [V n to-inf]  They found their son to have lied to them. // We find her evidence to be based on a certain degree of oversensitivity.
4. [V n n]  She finds the man a good husband. // I have never found my diet a problem.

動詞 leave 其中一個意思，指使或讓某人或某事物處某狀態、某位置、某情況等。這個意思可以用以下幾個不同之結構方式來表達：

1. [V n adj]  Please leave the door open. // The bomb blast left 7 people dead.
2. [V n -ing]  He left her waiting outside in the rain. // Do not leave the engine running when your car is stopped.
3. [V n to-inf]  Leave the rice to cook for 20 minutes.
4. [V n prep/adv]  I left the lights on when I left the room. // The accident left them in a state of shock.

上述長句中，動詞 find 用上了 1. 的結構方式，而動詞 leave 則用上了 2. 的結構方式。在 1. 的結構方式 [V (that)] 中，動詞 find 後接一個 that-子句，子句的主動詞是 leave ，另外有一個以非限定形式 (non-finite) 出現的動詞 looking ；整個 that-子句之結構為：

… the environment and physical infrastructure of modern Asian societies _{[主語 (subject)]} leave _{[主動詞 (main verb)]} British and many other European cities _{[賓語 (object)]} looking run down and dilapidated _{[賓語補語 (object complement)]}

所以，當名詞詞組 the environment and physical infrastructure of modern Asian societies 因關係代詞 which 的出現而被省略掉之後，關係子句動詞 find 便看似跟 that-子句動詞 leave 連在一起。

最後，讓我們多看幾個關係子句配合動詞 find 使用之結構的例子，總結以上所學：

1. Another couple bought the bed_i which_i we found t_i very comfortable.
   (= Another couple bought the bed + We found the bed very comfortable)
2. The couple punished their son_i, who_i they found t_i to have lied to them.
   (= The couple punished their son + They found their son to have lied to them)
3. I have a different opinion of the man_i whom_i she finds t_i a good husband.
   (= I have a different opinion of the man + She finds the man a good husband)
4. I quit the firm_i which_i the report found t_i had been doing badly.
   (= I quit the firm + The report found (that) the firm had been doing badly)

這個時候，你應該能夠正確解讀最上那個長句了。還是不能，嗯？看看下面的中文翻譯吧：

西方國家之失敗，不僅因為亞洲先進國家的環境和基建使英國和很多歐洲其他城市顯得破舊失修，更因為西方國家容忍她們當前[不夠好]的道德和社會秩序。

同學生做 UE 1997 Section C 閱讀理解，文章標題為 "The Asian Challenge: British Member of Parliament David Howell contrasts East with West" ，文中 41 至 45 行這樣寫：

So, the prospect emerges not just of richer Asian countries with far better public amenities, but of states with a cleaner environment and more reliable power supplies than Western governments for decades to come.

有學生看不懂這個英語句子，不明白動詞 emerge 後為何會接介詞 of ，而非 from 。今日我就為讀者解讀這句子，並看看英語裡頭一種語法現象，從而解答以上疑問。

可喜的是，我的學生知道動詞 emerge 後可以接介詞 from ，表達東西從哪兒現出，例如：

The sun emerged from behind the clouds.
The world is slowly emerging from the recession.
What eventually emerged from the election disaster was a realization that it was time for change.

不過，在我們要討論的那個句子中，作者並非要說前景或展望 (prospect) 從何而來，而是要說明怎麼樣的一個前景 the prospect of what 出現了，所以動詞 emerge 不帶介詞 from ，而是名詞 prospect 帶介詞 of 。簡單來說，上面那個句子的結構如下：

So, the prospect of X and Y emerges.

當中， X 等於 richer Asian countries with far better public amenities ，而 Y 等於 (Asian) states with A and B ﹝當中 A 即是 a cleaner environment ，而 B 則是 more reliable power supplies ﹞。

換句話說，語法上，介詞詞組 of X 是名詞 prospect 之補語 (complement) ，用來補充 prospect 的意思，而不是動詞 emerges 之補語。

那麼，為什麼這個作名詞 prospect 補語之介詞詞組 of X 會跟它的名詞中心語 (head) prospect 分開呢？ 原來，英語裡頭有一個語法現象，稱之為外位結構 (extraposition) ，在某些情況下，句子中的一個組成成分 (constituent) ，例如一個介詞詞組或一個關係子句 (relative clause) ，由原來的位置向右移位，通常移到句子的末端。允許外位結構出現的情況包括要句子說起來順口一點，及避免句子中間位置過重、尾則過輕。不妨看看以下例子：

1. a similar book to this one
   移位前： a similar to this one book
2. How fond are you of Sally?
   移位前： How fond of Sally are you?
3. A review appeared of Friedman’s latest book on the cultural differences between East and West.
   移位前： A review of Friedman’s latest book on the cultural differences between East and West appeared.
4. Although no rules exist about eating or drinking in the classroom, one does about chewing gum.
   移位前： Although no rules about eating or drinking in the classroom exist, one does about chewing gum.
5. After the dinner, a musician arrived who was hired yesterday for the wedding where many celebrities were invited, and performed a piano concerto in front of the audience.
   移位前： After the dinner, a musician who was hired yesterday for the wedding where many celebrities were invited arrived, and performed a piano concerto in front of the audience.

上面幾個例子中，黑色粗體字表示移位了的 (extraposed) 句子組成成分，它們都跟各自的中心語﹝加底線部分﹞分開。

我們要討論的那個句子，其實是要說：「展望將來，在未來幾十年，亞洲國家不但會富裕起來、擁有更佳的公共設施，而且與西方國家相比，環境會更清潔、能源供應會更可靠。」如果不運用外位結構 (extraposition) ，句子會變成：

So, the prospect of not just richer Asian countries with far better public amenities but states with a cleaner environment and more reliable power supplies than Western governments for decades to come emerges.

個人認為，不使用外位結構，句子既寫得不夠漂亮，讀起來也不夠順口，原因是句子中間位置變得累贅。緊記一點，英語傾向句子尾重、中間輕。

同學生做 proofreading 練習，其中有一題是這樣寫的：

Quick tests for the bird flu virus, conducted on other lively chickens at the farm, turned out negative.

那裡有錯呢？

答案： lively 一詞用錯。 lively 是形容詞 (adjective) ，有幾個意思；拿來形容一個人，指精力充沛的、活躍的，如 a lively child ；形容一個地方或一件事，指熱鬧的、生動的，如 a lively city; a lively party; Hong Kong's lively nightlife; the school's lively atmosphere; a lively debate; their lively discussion; a lively account of her adventures ； 形容顏色，指鮮艷奪目的，如 a lively shade of pink 。因此，拿 lively 來形容 chickens ，意思變成「活潑的雞兒」，除了與作者原意有所出入之外，還有點兒滑稽。正確答案是 live / living chickens ，意思是「活雞」。

有學生問，可以說 alive chickens 嗎？不能！雖然 live 、 living 、 alive 三個形容詞都解作「活的、有生命的、沒死的」，但它們的用法不相同： alive 是表語形容詞，而 live 和 living 是定語形容詞。

究竟甚麼是表語形容詞？甚麼是定語形容詞？我先請大家睇一段短片，內容講述何謂表語形容詞，然後我再說下去。

Watch video: Predicative adjectives

英語裡頭，絕大部分形容詞可用於名詞前面，亦可用於系詞 (copula) ﹝即連繫動詞 (linking verb)﹞ 後面，作為主語補語 (subject complement) 。例如：

a blue shirt [藍色的襯衫]
a happy woman [幸福的女人]
a busy street [繁忙的街道]

This shirt is blue. [這件襯衫是藍色的。]
She looks very happy. [她看來很幸福。]
The street is becoming busy. [街道越來越繁忙。]

其他常見系詞還有： seem; appear; get; grow; turn; go; prove; stay; keep; remain; feel; taste; smell; sound ﹝更多例子，參見 Wikipedia﹞。

不過，英語有些形容詞只能用於所修飾的名詞前，作為該名詞之修飾語 (modifier) ，它們一般不用於系動詞之後，這類形容詞稱之為定語形容詞 (attributive adjective) 。

例如，main 、 atomic 這兩個形容詞，我們可以說 the main concern ，卻不能說 The concern was main ；可以說 an atomic explosion ，但不能說 The explosion was atomic 。

其他定語形容詞有： chief, principal, major, key, primary, prime, adoring, belated, chequered, choked, commanding, fateful, flagrant, fleeting, knotty, live, living, paltry, punishing, ramshackle, scant, searing, thankless, unenviable, bridal, cardiac, countless, cubic, digital, east, eastern, eventual, existing, federal, forensic, indoor, institutional, introductory, investigative, judicial, lone, maximum, nationwide, neighbouring, north, northern, occasional, orchestral, outdoor, phonetic, preconceived, remedial, reproductive, smokeless, south, southern, subterranean, supplementary, underlying, west, western, woollen

反過來，英語有些形容詞一般只用於系動詞之後，作為主語補語 (subject complement) ，而不用於名詞之前，這類形容詞稱之為表語形容詞 (predicative adjective) 。

例如，glad 、 afraid 這兩個形容詞，我們可以說 She felt glad ，卻不能說 a glad woman ；可以說 He is afraid ，但不能說 an afriad man 。

其他表語形容詞有： ablaze, adrift, aflame, alive, alone, apart, asleep, awake, content, due, ill, likely, ready, safe, sorry, sure, unable, unlikely, well

另外，一些形容詞，當作表語形容詞用時，要帶介詞 to 。這些形容詞包括 accustomed, adjacent, allergic, attributable, attuned, averse, close, conducive, devoted, impervious, injurious, integral, liable, prone, proportional, proportionate, reconciled, related, resigned, resistant, similar, subject, subservient, susceptible, unaccustomed 等。例如，我們不可以說 They got accustomed ，要說 They got accustomed to working together ；不可以說 Children are prone ，要說 Children are prone to disease 。

有些形容詞，當作表語形容詞用時，要帶介詞 of 。這些形容詞包括 aware, bereft, capable, characteristic, desirous, devoid, fond, full, heedless, illustrative, incapable, indicative, mindful, reminiscent, representative 等。例如，我們不可以說 He was aware ，要說 He was aware of it ；不可以說 He seems devoid ，要說 He seems devoid of conscience 。

下面是其他作表語形容詞用時要帶介詞之形容詞，及其附帶之介詞：
contingent on, descended from, inherent in, lacking in, rooted in, steeped in, swathed in, unhampered by, answerable for/ to, burdened by/ with, connected to/ with, dependent on/ upon, immune from/ to, inclined to/ towards, incumbent on/ upon, insensible of/ to, intent on/ upon, parallel to/ with, reliant on/ upon, stricken by/ with, different from/ to/ than

最近要學生作文，題目為「論從互聯網下載娛樂節目之對與錯」。當學生提到「娛樂節目」一詞時，很多都在寫 entertaining material 、 entertaining programmes 之類。大家覺得有冇錯呢？

把「娛樂節目」寫成 entertaining programmes 不對！雖然 entertaining 是形容詞﹝嚴格來說，是現在分詞 (present participle)﹞，但用它來修飾 programmes ，整個名詞詞組會變成「有趣的節目」的意思。要說明節目的性質，英語要用另一個名詞去修飾 programmes ，那個名詞就是 entertainment 。

英語裡面，經常用到形容詞、現在或過去分詞 (past participle) 來作修飾語 (modifier) 。其實，英語使用名詞作為其他名詞的修飾語也非常普遍。事實上，當上下文清楚地表明你的意思，英語可以使用幾乎任何名詞來修飾任何其他名詞。名詞修飾語 (noun modifier) 可以用來表示兩個名詞之間種種不同的的關係。

例如，英語可以用名詞修飾語來說物件以什麼東西製造，如 cotton socks [棉襪子] ；也可以說在一個地方造什麼東西，如 a glass factory [玻璃廠] ；可以說一個人做什麼事，如 a football player [足球運動員] ；也可以說某東西在哪裡，如 my bedroom curtains [臥室窗簾] 。

英語可以用名詞修飾語來說事情何時發生，如 the morning mist [早晨的薄霧] 和 wartime activities [戰時活動] ，還可以用名詞修飾語來描述東西的性質或大小，如 a surprise attack [突襲] 和 a pocket chess-set [口袋大小的象棋] 。

英語通常使用單數形式 (singular) 的可數名詞 (countable noun) 作名詞修飾語，即使你是指多於一個，例如，出售書籍的地方是 a book shop ，而不是 a books shop ，即使它出售了大量的書籍，而不是只有一本。

英語中，許多複數名詞 (plural noun)，在其他名詞前面用作修飾語時，會失去 -s 這個複數詞尾 (suffix) ，例如：

my trouser pocket [褲袋]
pyjama trousers [睡褲]
paratroop attacks [傘兵空降攻擊]

其他例子還有 knickers [短褲], scissors [剪刀], spectacles [眼鏡] 和 troops [部隊] 等等。

然而，一些複數名詞，在其他名詞前面用作修飾語時，形式要保持相同，例如：

arms control [武器管制]
the arms race [軍備競賽]
clothes pegs [衣服掛鉤]

其他例子還有 binoculars [望遠鏡], glasses [眼鏡], jeans [牛仔褲] 和 sunglasses [太陽鏡] 等等。

如果你想描述得更具體，你可以使用一個以上的名詞修飾語，例如， a car insurance certificate 是「汽車保險證書」，表明汽車已投保； a state penion scheme 是「國家退休金計劃」，是由國家設立和管理之工人退休金方案。

其他例子還有：

Careers Information Day [職業資訊日]
car body repair kits [車身修理工具]
a family dinner party [家庭晚宴]
a school medical officer [學校醫療人員]

如果你想為一個已經有名詞修飾語修飾的名詞提供更多的信息，你可以在名詞修飾語的前面加上形容詞，例如：

a long car journey [一個很長的汽車旅程]
a new scarlet silk handkerchief [一條新的、鮮紅色的絲綢手帕]
complex business deals [複雜的商業交易]
this beautiful morning sunlight [美麗的早晨陽光]
the French film industry [法國電影業]

當有一個形容詞在兩個名詞之前，要留意它究竟是修飾那兩個合併了的名詞，還是第一個名詞而已，例如， 在 an electric can opener [電動開罐器] 中，形容詞 electric 修飾合併了的名詞詞組 can opener ；而在 electric shock treatment [電擊療法] 中，形容詞 electric 修飾名詞 shock ，然後，合併了的名詞詞組 electric shock 作名詞修飾語修飾名詞 treatment 。為方便讀者明白，以下用括號來解釋例子中形容詞與其他名詞之關係：

[ electric_ADJ [ can_N opener_N ]_NP ]_NP  即 electric + [can + opener]

[ [ electric_ADJ shock_N ]_NP treatment_N ]_NP  即 [electric + shock] + treatment

今日再同大家分享 Peter Kammerer 於 SCMP 寫的，標題為 World City? Rubbish 的文章，繼續解釋一些有用的詞彙和句型，讓大家學習、模仿。時間關係，今日只能同大家分享第二段：

Part of the problem is that I am lazy. The nearest three-colour recycling bins are a 15-minute walk away¹. That doesn't account for me being self-conscious [= 很在意] about pushing through [= 擠過去] the often jam-packed [= 擠擁的] pavements near my home with bags full of rubbish, that glass bottles and food scraps [= 剩下的食物] would not be accounted for or that my neighbours are unlikely to follow my lead [= 倣傚我的做法]². I live in private housing, not one of those public estates where recycling programmes are under way³. If authorities truly cared about the environment, they would give me and all other citizens an edict [= 法令] to sort our rubbish or face a big, fat fine [= 巨額罰款]⁴.

1. a 15-minute walk away 指步行十五分鐘的距離。留意 15-minute 這裏用作修飾語 (modifier) ，為單數 (singular) 名詞，不可加 -s 。同一意思可以寫成 The nearest three-colour recycling bins are 15 minutes' walk away ，留意這裏 15 minutes 是動詞 are 之主語補語 (subject complement) ，因為 15 的關係，名詞為複數 (plural) ，所以前面不能帶不定冠詞 (indefinite article) ，即 a 或 an 。
2. That doesn't account for me being self-conscious about pushing through the often jam-packed pavements near my home with bags full of rubbish, that glass bottles and food scraps would not be accounted for or that my neighbours are unlikely to follow my lead. 很長、看似很複雜的一句，其實只不過用上平行結構 (parallel structure) 後的假象而已。句子的平行點為形容詞 self-conscious 後，我把三個平行句分別用上三種不同顏色標示。形容詞 self-conscious 可後接介詞 about，亦可接 that-子句 (that-clause) 。另外，片語動詞 account for 指「解釋、說明」，後接名詞詞組，上面句子中，動詞 being 以動名詞 (gerund) 形式出現，動名詞前兼帶主語，但因介詞 for 的緣故，主語為受格 (object/ accusative case) 代詞 me ，整個結構類屬一個名詞詞組，符合 account for 之句法規定。類似句法結構於歷屆高考 UE Section C 試題出現不少，最近的 2010 年也考過學生：
   

   Snopes' world headquarters is actually just Barbara and David __(25)__ around their modest home on a shady hillside outside Los Angeles.
   A.  sit
   B.  sits
   C.  sitting
   D.  seated

   同學們應該知道答案是 C. 了。這裏動詞 sitting 必須以現在分詞 (present participle) 這種非限定形式出現，因為英語語法規定，每個句子 (clause) 只能容納一個以限定形式 (finite) 出現之動詞，句子內其他動詞必須以非限定形式 (non-finite) 出現。限定形式指動詞在人稱 (person) 和數 (number) 上與主語一致 (agree) 。例如： am 、 is 、 are 、 was 、 were 是動詞 be 的限定形式，而 be 、 being 、 been 是非限定形式。上句中，動詞 is 已經以限定形式出現，所以，動詞 sitting 只能以非限定形式出現。另一個例子，同樣取自 2010 UE Section C ：“ Our first date was me taking Barbara to the library at UCLA to go through old magazines. ”。

   返回 Peter Kammerer 寫的那句“ That doesn't account for me being self-conscious about pushing through the often jam-packed pavements near my home with bags full of rubbish, that glass bottles and food scraps would not be accounted for or that my neighbours are unlikely to follow my lead. ”，其實可以寫成：

   That doesn't account for the fact that I am self-conscious about pushing through the often jam-packed pavements near my home with bags full of rubbish; nor does it explain why I feel embarrassed that glass bottles and food scraps would not be included, or why I am worried that my neighbours are unlikely to follow my example.

3. under way 解作已經開始或在進行中，形容詞，亦可寫成 underway ，例如：
   

   An investigation is under way to find out how the disaster happened.
   調查正在進行，目的是找出災難如何發生。

   Economic recovery is already underway.
   經濟已開始復甦。

4. If authorities truly cared about the environment, they would give me and all other citizens an edict to sort our rubbish or face a big, fat fine. 句子用上第二類條件句 (conditional sentence) ﹝各類條件句用法另見拙文：睇 SCMP 學英文 (一)﹞，表明作者認為政府有關當局，根本不關心環保問題，不然政府定必立例，強制廢物分類，並向違例者徵收巨額罰款。

今日講講代詞 (pronoun) 的一種特殊用法，它不作人稱代詞 (personal pronoun) ，而是作為一個虛義引導詞 (empty introductory word) ，在分裂句 (cleft sentence) 中用來引入要強調的部分。好，先睇片！

Watch video: Introductory it in cleft sentences

Using introductory it

When the subject is an infinitive phrase

We begin a sentence with it when the real subject is an infinitive phrase. So instead of saying, ‘To accept your advice is difficult’, we say, ‘It is difficult to accept your advice’.

Structure: It + verb + subject complement + infinitive phrase (real subject)

It is easy to learn English. (= To learn English is easy.)
It is easy to find fault with others. (= To find fault with others is easy.)
It is difficult to know his motive. (= To know his motive is difficult.)
It is difficult to find a good job during these troubled times. (= To find a good job during these troubled times is difficult.)
It is dangerous to play with fire. (= To play with fire is dangerous.)
It could be dangerous to drive so fast. (= To drive so fast could be dangerous.)

Note that when we wish to emphasize the infinitive phrase, it may be put at the beginning, especially when it is short.

To err is human. (OR It is human to err.)
To become a well known writer was his life-long ambition. (OR It was his lifelong ambition to become a well known writer.)
To invest all your money in shares is foolish. (OR It is foolish to invest all your money in shares.)

When the subject is a gerund phrase

When the real subject is a phrase that includes a gerund, it is used as a provisional subject to begin the sentence. So instead of saying ‘Your trying to fool us is no good’, we say, ‘It is no good your trying to fool us.’

It won’t be any good complaining to the manager. (= Complaining to the manager won’t be any good.)
It is silly throwing away this opportunity. (= Throwing away this opportunity is silly.)
Will it be any good my talking to him about it? (= Will my talking to him about it be any good?)
It is no fun having so many children to look after. (= Having so many children to look after is no fun.)

Note that it is possible to change the gerund into an infinitive.

It won’t be any good for me to complain to the manager.
It is silly (for you) to throw away this opportunity.
Will it be any good for me to talk to him about it?

Many of these sentences can also be re-written as exclamatory sentences.

How silly of you to throw away this opportunity!

When the subject is a clause

When the subject is a clause, the sentence usually begins with it. So instead of saying ‘That he was once a communist is true’, we say, ‘It is true that he was once a communist’.

It does not matter whether he comes or not. (= Whether he comes or not does not matter.)
It is required that he should pay the fine. (= That he should pay the fine is required.)
It is clear that he overheard our conversation. (= That he overheard our conversation is clear.)
It is clear that you are not interested in this offer. (= That you are not interested in the offer is clear.)
It cannot be denied that they tried their best to help him. (= That they tried their best to help him cannot be denied. )
It doesn’t matter whether we buy it now or later. (= Whether we buy it now or later does not matter. )

Introductory it with seem, appear and look

Introductory it is also used with seem, appear and look when the subject is an infinitive phrase, a phrase with a gerund in it or a clause.

It looked doubtful whether she would come
It seemed strange that she should behave like that.
It seems possible that she may quit the job.
It appeared unwise to offend him.
It does not seem much good going on with the work.

Introductory it as an object

It is sometimes used as the object of the verbs think, feel, deem, count, consider, etc. These verbs take an object and an object complement (either an adjective or a noun).

Structure: subject + verb + it (object) + object complement + infinitive phrase/ clause (real object)

Don’t you think it  dangerous  to drive so carelessly?
I consider it a privilege to have this opportunity of welcoming you.
I think it odd that she doesn’t write to me these days.
I think it a pity that she could not win.
We think it improper that he should be so dictatorial.
He made it clear what he wanted.
I find it difficult to talk to him.

Introductory it in questions

The introductory it is sometimes used in questions.

Who was it that broke the window?
(It is Peter who broke the window.)
Why was it that he stole the bread?
(It was because he was poor that he stole the bread.)
When was it that the manager came?
(It was at 10 am that the manager came.)

同大家分享 SCMP 最近 (2010-04-27) 一篇由 Peter Kammerer 所寫的文章，題為 "World City? Rubbish" ，內裡有些有用的詞彙和句型，大家不妨學習、模仿一番。因時間關係，今日只同大家分享第一段：

Thanks to¹ the government's plastic bag tax, I've learned to take a backpack (背包) when shopping. Without question², I would also sort my rubbish into piles to make recycling easier were laws to that effect in place (制定)³. This is what is expected from people in socially and environmentally responsible societies the world over⁴. Authorities crow⁵ that Hong Kong is a globally plugged-in (與全球接通的) place and, while I would certainly wish this of the city I have chosen to call my home⁶, the fact that I feel guilty when I take out the rubbish makes a lie of their claim⁷.

1. thanks to 乃介詞 (preposition) ，後接名詞詞組 (noun phrase) ，不可接句子 (clause) ，有 because of / as a result of / due to 的意思，中文解作「多虧」、「由於」、「因為」，可褒可貶，例如：
   

   The play was a great success, thanks to the effort and commitment of everyone involved. (褒義)
   Thanks to your carelessness, those important documents have been lost. (貶義)

2. without question 乃短語 (phrase) ，放在句首、句中或句末，用來強調要表達之意見符合事實，中文譯作「毫無疑問」，與 beyond question 和 out of question 同義，例如：
   

   Without question, it is his handwriting.
   Marilyn was, without question, a very beautiful woman.
   He was our greatest storyteller, without question.

3. were laws to that effect in place 乃第二類用以表達空想的情況之條件句 (conditional sentence) 之變型，原型為 if laws to that effect were in place ，意思是「假如有關法律有被制定的話」。第一類用以表達有可能的情況之條件句和第三類用以表達已過去且帶遺憾的情況之條件句也有相對之變型，例子如下：
   

   Should anyone calls (= If anyone calls), please tell them I'm busy.
   Should you be fired (= If you are fired), your pension benefits will be cut off automatically.
   Had I known what my weakness was (= If I had known what my weakness was), I would have tried my best to overcome it.

4. the world over 乃副詞短語 (adverbial phrase) ，用於要修飾之名詞之後，意思在世界的每一角落﹝都一樣﹞，與 everywhere 、 worldwide 、 globally 、 all over the world 同義。
5. crow 乃動詞 (verb) ，後接 about/ over 或 that-clause ，中文解作「吹噓」、「炫耀」，含義與其他動詞如 boast 、 brag 和 pride 有少少分別，用法則差不多 (pride 除外) 。
   

   The company hasn't much to crow about, with sales down compared with last year.
   She won the competition and crowed over her rivals' failure.

   Boast 、 brag 、 crow 、 pride 這些動詞均含有自誇、吹噓之意。 boast 為普通用詞，指對自己所做的事、自己的長處、財富以及家庭等的誇耀，常含言過其實的意味。 brag 為非正式 (informal) 用詞，其誇耀和吹噓意味強於 boast ，到了過分誇大，有時令人討厭的地步。 crow 多指大聲吵嚷地吹噓，誇耀自己做某事比他人做得好。 pride 與 boast 的意義較接近，指炫耀、誇口，自鳴得意，常與反身代詞 (reflexive pronoun, e.g. himself, herself, themselves, itself) 連用：

   He's always boasting about his children's success at school.
   He boasted of being the best player in the team.
   He boasted that he was the best player in the team.

   He's been bragging about his new car.
   She bragged that she could run faster than me.

   Our school prides itself more on its athletic achievements than its academic record.

6. wish this of the city I have chosen to call my home 乃 wish the city I have chosen to call my home this 之變型，當中 wish 的句法為 V N₁ N₂ ﹝註： N₁ 為間接賓語 (indirect object) ， N₂ 為直接賓語 (direct object)﹞，即 wish 後接兩個名詞詞組 (noun phrase) ：
   

   I wish you every success.

   Everyone else in your group is successful. I wish you this, too.
   Everyone else in your group is successful. I wish this of you, too.

7. make a lie of their claim 乃 make their claim a lie 之變型，有「使他們所聲稱的顯得一派鬼話」的意思。 Make a lie of sth 與另一詞語 make a mockery of sth 「使某事物顯得荒謬或無價值」同出一轍：
   

   The unfair and hasty decision of the court made a mockery of the trial.
   法院匆匆做出的不公正的裁決使這次審判形同兒戲。

改學生作文，發現以下句子，大家有否留意當中之語法有錯？
I reckon that such law-breaking activities will continue even people may risk being prosecuted.

其實，經常發現學生誤將 even though 寫作 even 。所以這裡，解釋一下兩詞用法上的分別及其他相關詞彙。

Even 是副詞 (adverb) ，用以加強出乎意料的語氣或進而比較可能發生的事，後接想強調之名詞 (noun) 、動詞 (verb) 、介詞 (preposition) 等詞組 (phrase) ，但不可用於句子 (clause) 前；中文一般譯作「甚至」、「連」、「都」、「即使」，例如：

1. He didn't answer even my letter.
   他連我的信都不回。
2. Even a child can understand the book.
   甚至連孩子都看得懂這本書。
3. He never even opened the letter.
   他甚至都沒把信打開。
4. It was cold there even in July.
   那裡即使七月份都很冷。

例句 1 強調我的信，意味其他人的信他也不會回。例句 2 強調孩子，意味成年人一定看得懂那本書。例句 3 強調沒打開，意味更加沒看過。例句 4 強調七月份，意味冬季會更寒冷。

Even though 則用作連接詞 (conjunction) ，等於 in spite of the fact/ belief that ，強調一些事實不會影響某事的真確性，用於句子 (clause) 前；中文一般譯作「即使…」、「縱然…」、「儘管…」，例如：

I like her even she can be annoying at times.
I like her even though she can be annoying at times.
儘管她有時很惱人，但我還是喜歡她。

Even though 後不可用 but 或 yet ，但可以用 still ，這點像 though 和 although ：

Though / Although / Even though he is 24 now, but / yet he is still like a little child.
儘管他已經廿四歲，他仍然像一個小孩子。

同樣表達「即使」的還有 even now/ then ，不過與 even though 不同，它單獨使用，表示「即使到這時」的意思：

Even now I find it hard to believe that he lied to me.
即使到這時，我依然難以相信他對我說謊。

They invested in new machinery and equipment, but even then the business was still losing money.
他們購置新型機器與設備，但即使在這種情況下，生意還不斷蝕本。

與 even now/ then 相比， even so 也是單獨使用之連接詞 (conjunction) ，不過強調的不是時間，而是之前的論述，通常譯作「儘管如此」、「然而」、「不過」，例如：

There are many spelling mistakes, even so, it's quite a good essay.
There are many spelling mistakes; even so, it's quite a good essay.
這篇文章有許多拼寫錯誤，然而仍不失之為好文章。

I know he's only a child, even so he should have known that what he was doing was wrong.
I know he's only a child, but even so he should have known that what he was doing was wrong.
我知道他只不過是小孩一個，儘管如此，他應該要知道他確實做錯了。

留意例句中， even so 必須以句號 (.) 、 分號 (;) 或連接詞 but 引入，否則會犯下黏連句 (run-on sentence) 這語病。